Riprendiamo con la pubblicazione, a puntate, della tesi di laurea di Eleonora Luisi che costituirà un'ottima base per alcuni approfondimenti sull'India di oggi. Per le sezioni precedenti, cliccare qui !
1.11 L’India Britannica
Il controllo inglese sull’India risale all’inizio del XIX sec., anche se il paese è diviso in stati governati dai sovrani locali chiamati maharaja (principi) e i nawab.
Da una parte vi sono questi stati che amministrano i loro territori, dall’altra vi è un governo centrale che ha come modello il sistema governativo inglese.
The East India Company administered the territory until 1858, although the British government has already controls India earlier.
The British with their interest in trade and profits increase production of tea, coffee, cotton and increase the extraction of coal and iron. It built an extensive rail network in India and began to design the system of irrigation canals and the zamindars (landowners who do not live in their lands), resulting in an increase in the number of impoverished peasants. English becomes the official language, although many continue to speak local languages \u200b\u200band this fact determines a distance between the rulers and the Indians.
1.12 The struggle for self-government
The revolt against the British began in 1857, the same year they founded the three major universities in India in Bombay, Madras and Calcutta, which promote the teachings of European type in English. The spread of British culture in India has formed a Westernized middle class made up of the Indian workers in the state bureaucracy, bankers and merchants who grew rich with the East India Company in addition to the large Indian industrial cotton and steel.
This class is united by common interests and a culture that is not only English, but many adhere to the new reformed Hinduism that has developed in response to the Europeans who have criticized the orthodox Hinduism. Many Indians
outraged by the conduct contemptuous decide to claim the European values \u200b\u200band create a new reform of Hinduism against the degeneration of recent years. The westernized middle class of clerks and bureaucrats in India whose development is due to the collaboration with the British, he realizes that command posts are reserved for only the English, while the Indians are excluded.
The main cause of the outbreak of the rebellion of 1857 concerning an incident in a military barracks in Meerut, Uttar Pradesh, which spreads the news that the soldiers were given bullets greased with animal fat.
In environments Indians circulating rumors that it is fat cow, an animal considered sacred to Hindus, while among Muslims it comes to fat pig, an animal considered unclean by Islam and these items generate a situation of tension, which soon leads to a rebellion that was soon quelled by the British in the blood. These facts show clear signs of instability in the life of the country that requires a process of change. When in 1883 a draft law, which requires the courts to judge Indian British citizens, British cause a reaction, the Indians decided to organize to promote their rights and in 1885 founded the Congress Party.
Within the party, it appears that current moderate, who thinks that it is enough to prove to England that Indians are capable of governing themselves to seek self-government, promote various social reforms with the aim of educating the masses. Moderates understand that Congress is an expression of the Westernized middle class that lacks the participation of the masses. To try to change the situation is expected to use religion as an instrument of propaganda and pilgrimages and religious festivals are organized to convince the masses that need to rebel against the British. In 1905 he was the first clash between the Congress Party and the British, after a measure of the Viceroy Lord Carzone which provides that private schools are monitored by the British in India.
When Bengal was divided into two provinces based on religious divisions to separate Hindus from Muslims, the Congress understands that this policy action is to divide Hindus and Muslims. Bengal began an agitation that soon spread to many regions of India.
Congress decides to use the "swadeshi", namely the rejection of everything that comes from England. During this first phase, the colonial government emerges winner: can not unify the unrest in Bengal, where there are strong tensions between the extremists and moderates. The British arrested the head of the current extreme and try to support the moderates by granting some reforms such as election Indians in the Viceregal advice. The Indian situation remains unchanged until the outbreak of World War I and the appearance on the international scene of Gandhi.
1.13 The Mahatma Gandhi
Gandhi is one of the greatest figures of the twentieth century. and plays a central role in the struggle for Indian independence from British colonial rule.
Founded in 1869 by a merchant family in Portbandar in northwest India and got married at the age of thirteen years under the Hindu tradition. He studied in London and after graduating in law from practicing as a lawyer in Bombay, but only briefly.
Indeed in 1863 went to South Africa where- remains for twenty years and worked as a counselor at an Indian firm. During these years Gandhi was in touch with the reality of "apartheid" and began his struggle for recognition of Indian rights. In 1906 he promoted his method of struggle based on non-violent resistance, called "satyagraha." Gandhi himself defines the meaning of satyagraha as follows:
Over the last thirty years I have preached the satyagraha. I came to the conclusion that the principles of satyagraha constitute a gradual evolution. The term satyagraha was coined by me in South Africa to define the force in this country the Indians used it for eight years, and was coined by the order to distinguish this force from the movement that was developing then in England and South Africa under the name of Passive Resistance.
Its deeper meaning is adhering to the truth, and thus the power of truth. I also called the power of love or soul force. In 'the application of Satyagraha I discovered from the first moments that the search for truth does not allow the use of violence against the adversary, but that this must be diverted from error by patience and understanding.
For what seems like the truth to one may seem a mistake to another. And patience means available to suffer. So the meaning of the doctrine is the defense of verità attuata non infliggendo sofferenze all’avversario ma a se stessi.
Ma in campo politico la lotta per il bene del popolo consiste soprattutto nell’opporsi all’errore nella forma delle leggi ingiuste. Quando non si è riusciti a convincere il legislatore dell’errore attraverso petizioni e cose del genere, l’unica strada che rimane aperta, se non ci si vuole sottomettere all’ingiustizia, è di costringerlo a cedere con la forza o di soffrire nella propria persona esponendosi alla punizione per la violazione della legge. Per questo satyagraha per la maggior parte della gente significa Disobbedienza civile o Resistenza Civile.
È civile perché non è criminale.
Il criminale viola la legge sneaking, and tries to avoid punishment, but is totally different behavior of the person who practices civil resistance. This always obey the laws of the state to which it belongs, not out of fear of punishment but because it considers them useful for the welfare of society. But
occur some cases, usually rare, in which he considers some unjust laws and obedience to them a disgrace. He then openly and civilly violates these laws and patiently endured the punishment that is imposed for such violation. And to demonstrate his protest against the action of the legislators he may withhold his cooperation to the state, even disobeying other laws whose breach does not imply a behavior immoral.
In my opinion the beauty and efficacy of satyagraha are great, and the doctrine is so simple that they can also be taught to a child.
In South Africa I have preached to thousands of men, women and children in India, with excellent results.
("Young India", January 14, 1920).
Gandhi's objective is to achieve the social and political equality through peaceful marches and rebellions and its work with the South African government to eliminate some discriminatory laws, is entitled to equal rights for Indian immigrants and are recognized religious marriages. In 1915, after his return home, diviene il leader del Partito del Congresso e svolge un ruolo di rilievo nella lotta contro il colonialismo inglese. Diventa il promotore della prima campagna di disubbidienza civile e di non collaborazione con il governo britannico così definite:
…La disubbidienza civile è la violazione civile delle leggi immorali e oppressive. L’espressione, a quanto mi risulta, fu coniata da Thoreau per indicare la sua resistenza contro le leggi di uno stato schiavista. Egli ha lasciato un’opera magistrale sul dovere della disubbidienza civile. Ma Thoreau forse non era un vero campione della non-violenza. Probabilmente inoltre egli limitò la sua violazione delle leggi alla legge sulle entrate, ossia al pagamento delle tasse.
By contrast, the civil disobedience that was practiced in 1919 involved a breach of all laws oppressive and immoral. It meant to be out in a civil law, ie non-violent. The follower of civil disobedience was exposed to the penalties provided by law and submitted willingly to the Incarnation. Civil disobedience is a part of satyagraha. The non-cooperation
basically implies the refusal to cooperate with the state in the opinion of the followers of non-cooperation has become corrupt, and excludes the civil disobedience of the type described above total.
By its very nature non-cooperation can be carried by children who have just the age of reason and can be easily practiced by the masses. Civil disobedience presupposes a willingness to obey the law voluntarily, not by fear of sanctions they provide. It can therefore be practiced only as a last resort and, at least initially, only a few selected items. The non-cooperation, such as civil disobedience, is a part of satyagraha, which includes all forms of non-violent resistance to the affirmation of the truth.
("Young India", March 23, 1921).
In 1920 Gandhi manages to bring the peasant masses in the organization of the Congress Party and its farmers who call him "Mahatma", which in Sanskrit means "Great Soul". Is jailed and released several times during his fight, taking part in the London Conference, where it claims the right of independence for his country.
In 1930 he was the promoter of the "salt march", one of the most unfair tax because it hits the lower classes. In March of that year he wrote a letter to the Viceroy listing the injustices that must be eliminated by the British government and in the final section presents the method of satyagraha and the intention to launch a campaign of civil disobedience regarding the violation of the law salt:
would be wrong to wait. It is generally accepted that no matter how disorganized and for the moment still numerically weak, the party of violence is gaining ground and starts kicking. Its purposes are the same that I set. But I am convinced that it can not relieve the suffering of the masses in India. It is getting deeper in me the belief that only the absolute non-violence can be a valuable antidote to the violence organized by the British government. Many think that nonviolence is not an active force. My experience, however limited it may be, but I have shown that non-violence can be an intensely active force. I intend to lead this great force against organized violence against the British rule as disorganized violence dal partito della violenza in rapida ascesa. Rimanere ancora passivi significherebbe dare libero corso a entrambe queste forze. Vedo una cieca e incrollabile fede nell’efficacia della non-violenza come io ho, sarebbe colpevole da parte mia attendere ancora. Questa non-violenza sarà espressa attraverso la disobbedienza civile, che per il momento sarà limitata ai componenti dell’ashram del satyagraha, ma che in seguito dovrà estendersi a tutti coloro che vorranno unirsi al movimento accettandone i naturali limiti.
La mia ambizione. La conversione del popolo inglese. So che portando avanti un’azione non violenta io correrò un rischio che potrebbe essere giustamente definito folle. Ma le vittorie della verità have never been achieved without taking risks, and often have been obtained only with the ability to run the greatest risk. The conversion of a nation that consciously or unconsciously lives off of another nation much more populous, much older and less civil, it is something that deserves you take risks.
deliberamene I used the word conversion. In fact, my ambition is to convert the British people through non-violence, and ensure that it understands the harm he has done to India. I do not mean harm to your people. I want to serve no more or less how I want to serve my. And I think I have ever served. Up to 1919 I served him blindly.
Ma anche quando i miei occhi si aprirono e concepii l’idea della non collaborazione, il fine della mia azione rimase quello di servire il popolo inglese. Ho usato contro di esso la stessa arma che, con tutta umiltà, ho usato con successo contro i membri più cari della mia famiglia. Se nutro per il vostro popolo lo stesso amore che nutro per il mio, questo amore non potrà rimanere a lungo disconosciuto. Esso si rivelerà al vostro popolo come si è rivelato ai membri della mia famiglia dopo numerosi anni di scontri. Se il popolo si unirà a me, come credo che farà, le sofferenze che esso affronterà, se l’Inghilterra non muterà al più presto il suo atteggiamento, saranno capaci di toccare i cuori più hard.
If not then will eliminate injustices. The draft is intended for civil disobedience to fight the injustices that I have mentioned. It is because of these injustices that we want to sever our relations with England. When they will be deleted everything will become easy, and it will open the way for amicable negotiations. If British relations with India will be purified by greed, you will have no difficulty in recognizing our independence. Therefore respectfully urge you to engage immediately in the elimination of these injustices, to open the way to real negotiations between equals, merely seek to promote the common good of humanity through the voluntary cooperation, and establish the terms of a mutual aid and reports satisfactory to both parties. You gave too much prominence to the problems that plague communities of this country. Important as these problems can be for anyone who wants to rule the country, they have a quite secondary importance compared to more serious problems that are beyond the community and affecting all equally. But if she will not eliminate the injustices that I mentioned and if this letter will not be able to touch his heart, on the 11th of this month I will start with the companions of the ashram who want to follow me, violating the provision on the salt march . I consider the tax salt the most iniquitous of all from the perspective of the poor. And since the independence movement that aims primarily to the good of the country's poorest, will start from the fight against this injustice. The thing that surprised us is that we are subject to cruel salt monopoly for so long. I know you have the opportunity to act to prevent me making me stop. But I hope that there are tens of thousands of people ready, in a disciplined manner, to take my place, and disobeying the law on salt, to expose himself to the penalties provided for by law should never have been defacing our codes.
not a threat but a sacred duty. I have no desire to cause difficulties unjustified e in generale di causarle delle difficoltà, per quanto mi è possibile. Se lei pensa che nella mia lettera vi siano degli argomenti validi e se è disposto a discutere con me le questioni in essa trattate e se a tal fine preferisce che io rinvii la pubblicazione della lettera, sarò lieto di fare quanto lei gradisce purchè riceva indicazioni telegrafiche in tal senso a giro di posta. La prego tuttavia di non tentare di distogliermi dai miei propositi se non vede la possibilità di risolvere i problemi sollevati in questa lettera.
Questa lettera non vuole essere in alcun modo una minaccia, ma corrisponde ad un elementare e sacro dovere, imprescindibile per un seguace della resistenza civile. La farò recapitare da un giovane amico inglese che crede in the Indian cause and is a faithful follower of non-violence and that Providence seems to me specially sent to fulfill my task.
("Young India", March 12, 1930).
The campaign of non-violent Gandhi also promotes a boycott of goods from abroad and was imprisoned after his wife with long protest hunger strikes, the most famous being undertaken to combat the situation of "untouchables"
Fasting is a powerful weapon in the Satyagraha. It can not be undertaken by all. The simple physical ability to endure is not a sufficient quality. Fasting is completely useless without a deep faith in God, it must never be a mechanical effort or a mere imitation. Must be inspired from deep within. So it is extremely rare. I seem to cut it. It is noteworthy that none of those in the political sphere is in my own position has felt the pulse of the fast. And I'm pleased to say that none of them has ever criticized my fasts. Even my fellow members of the ashram have never felt the impulse of the fast, except on rare occasions. They have always accepted the rule not to engage in fasting prison without my permission, no matter how compelling the impulse to fasting may seem to them.
Fasting then, although it is a powerful weapon, is governed by strict rules and can be taken only by those who are adequately prepared for it. And, in my yardstick, the majority of fasting are in no way related to the scope of satyagraha and are, as they are generally called the hunger strike without any preparation and awareness. If you repeat too often, these
hunger strikes are set to lose even the limited effect that may have to fall into the ridiculous.
(Harjan, March 18, 1939). When
August 15, 1947, India achieved independence, Gandhi live with suffering, this time dedicated to prayer and fasting. In fact it is enshrined in the division of the subcontinent into two states: India and Pakistan. This division adds the definitive separation between Hindus and Muslims, and determining the outbreak of civil war, which causes a million deaths and six million refugees. The Mahatma that has taken a moderate stance on the issue of division of the country, aroused the hatred of a Hindu fanatic, who kills him during a prayer meeting January 30, 1948.
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