resumed after a few posts to break with the thesis, serials, Eleanor Luisi, an excellent opportunity to get a general idea of \u200b\u200bIndia. In the previous section (hence access to the other), click here .
Indian religion
Indian religion is Hinduism which is based on a corpus of sacred texts: the Vedas, which date back to around 2000-1000 BC, consist of a series of songs in honor of the gods, by rituals and formulas that are spoken during the sacrifices.
Hinduism ritual practice is entrusted to the priestly caste of Brahman, who guard the various criteria for the construction of systems of thought called "Darshana".
darshana The most complete, that is to study the Vedas e le Upanishad, si chiama Vedanta il cui fondatore è Shankara.
Il Vedanta teorizza l’esistenza del Brahaman, l’Assoluto, definito come l’unità che comprende il tutto, dal quale derivano il dharma, che è la legge che determina e sostiene l’ordine cosmico e l’Atman, il “sé” di ogni individuo. Secondo il Vedanta il fine della vita è la liberazione dal ciclo delle morti e rinascite detto “moksha”. Gli hindù credono nella trasmigrazione delle anime a seconda delle azioni compiute nella vita precedente (legge del Karma): le buone azioni saranno premiate, mentre quelle negative implicano una nuova reincarnazione.
L’uomo per raggiungere la liberazione deve distruggere il Maya, l’ignoranza, l’insieme delle illusioni causate dal desiderio, il velo che nasconde il Brahaman.
Con la distruzione del Maya l’individuo raggiunge alla consapevolezza suprema dell’origine divina dell’Atman. Per il raggiungimento della conoscenza suprema l’Induismo è diviso in tre diverse correnti: il vishnuismo, lo shivaismo e lo shaktismo. Il vishnuismo si basa sulla “bhakti”, la devozione religiosa verso il dio creatore Visnu e delle sue reincarnazioni come Rama e Krishna. I testi sacri di questa corrente sono quattro: la Bhagavad-gita, il Visnu-Purana, i Bhakti-sutra e il Bhagavata- purana.
Nello shivaismo viene praticato il culto di Shiva concepito come divinità cosmic, who with his dance creates and destroys the universe. The followers of the cult must follow ascetic practices such as yoga and mantra recitation. In
Shaktism, the goddess Shakti is conceived as a feminine energy that sustains the world, through it you get to a direct relationship with the divine unity. The texts are sacred tantra erotic nuances, in fact according to these during intercourse leads to the union between Shiva and Shakti.
Indian philosophy
The Vedas The Vedas are the sacred scriptures of the Indian tradition, the word means "wisdom" and their origin dates back to around 2000 - 1000 BC These texts are divided into three collections:
1) Rg-Veda known as the "Veda of verses" is the oldest.
2) Yajur-Veda Veda formulas. "
3) Sama-Veda Veda of melodies. "
Beyond these texts we have to mention the Atharva-Veda consists of hymns, magical-religious.
There are other scriptures that are a commentary on the Vedas in order to interpret the Vedic rituals and formulas: the Brahmanas and Aranyaka.
In Indian tradition the Vedas and the Brahmanas are considered the pillars on which the Sruti or revelation, and there is the belief that these texts derive from the divine world.
Rta and Dharma: the cosmic order and the universal law
The RTA is defined as a cosmic order:
"It is a cardinal concept of the legal universe, religious and moral of Indo-Europeans: it is the 'Order" that rule is the order of the universe, the movement of the stars, the periodicity of the seasons , the ratio of men to the gods and finally the men among them.
Nothing that relates to man in the world escape the 'empire of the' Order '. " According to Vedic tradition
The RTA is at the top of the heavens or on the altar of fire.
In the Hindu pantheon is the god Varuna, who is the ruler of the world, the keeper of any rule and is represented on the back of Makara, a great sea monster, holding the networks with which they catch violators of the law. Is also considered the god of the Maya, the change causes a change in the cosmic order.
In the Vedic conception are the two main concepts of RTA and Maya. The law of dharma comes from the RTA, while the Maya is the illusion.
According to tradition, the rta brahamanesimo reincarnated in the form of dharma, the cosmic law which is based on the universe.
Dharma is the order by which it maintains the harmony of the world, and consists of a series of laws that man in her life to follow.
The Code of Manu collects all of these rules that guide people in search of wisdom, patience and self-control.
The eternal law of dharma is identified with the revealed scriptures, the Sruti, and is the spiritual duty of every Hindu.
Dharma is based on sruti, which is the divine revelation, that all knowledge is collected in the Vedas and Smriti which literally means "memory" and refers to the whole corpus of texts of human origin. Smriti also found in the Puranas, a collection of short stories and mythical legends accompanied by teachings, which are classified as a fifth Veda.
The Code of Manu
In Indian mythology, Manu is considered the legislature and the progenitor of mankind.
The division of society into castes is attributed to Manu according to the classic division into priests, warriors, farmers, artisans and traders.
The Code of Manu is a work of great importance and contains the law of Dharma, all the rights and duties that each individual must make in the course of its existence.
The code was written in about the fourth century. AD and the work shows the absolute supremacy of the Brahman caste for the interpretation and the preservation of tradition.
The work consists of twelve books, each of which there are different issues.
In the first book describes the creation by Brahma, the divine creator of all things, in the second lists the rules governing the sacraments and the novitiate in the third are the requirements for marriage, which provide a duty for women to follow the instructions of his father, brothers and her husband, in the fourth book exposed the duties of the priestly caste
, fifth in the rules that women must follow to abstinence and purification in the sixth describes the duties of the hermits and ascetics, is the seventh of the duties relate to the warrior caste, the eighth describes the rules of the profession of judges, the ninth has the laws on marriage and succession; the tenth lists the duties that lower castes have make; ceremonies is the eleventh and twelfth repentance indicates ways to achieve peace and end the doctrine of the transmigration of souls. In summary, the Code of Manu is a set of moral and religious principles that guide human conduct to bliss.
The creation according to the Rig-Veda
the tenth mandala of the Rig-Veda is exposed the tendency of the Vedic religion. We find the explanation of cosmological order that comes from the One from which all things are born and Gods. The swaying of the water source is located and is a feature of Vedic cosmology, after the heat is produced by the techniques of yoga, detto tapas, poi una volta “scaldato” l’Ekam (Uno), kama, il desiderio creatrice determina l’esistenza di questo Uno. Il principio responsabile della creazione in molti inni viene descritto come l’Ekam, l’Uno, oppure come il Tat, “Quello”.
La tradizione associa a questo principio l’immagine di diverse divinità per esempio Visvakarman, l’operatore di tutte le cose, Brhaspati, il signore della preghiera, Prajapati, il protettore di tutte le creature concepiti come embrioni d’oro collegati al Sole e alle acque, oppure è definito come un principio eterno ed innato.
Nell’ “Inno dell’Uomo cosmico Purusa” riemerge la tendenza monistica.
In questo inno la creazione deriva dall’Uomo cosmico, dalle corrispondenze tra macrocosmo e microcosmo e in particolare dal sacrificio cosmico di Purusa, divinità e vittima del sacrificio:
“Quando gli dei distesero il sacrificio col Purusa come offerta, la primavera fu il burro fuso, l’estate la legna, l’autunno l’oblazione […]
11. Quando divisero il Purusa, in quante parti lo fece? Che cosa (è chiamata) la sua bocca, che le braccia, che cosa sono chiamate le cosce e i piedi?
12. Il Brahmana (il sacerdote), fu la sua bocca, le braccia divennero il rajanya (guerriero), le sue cosce il vaisya (l’agricoltore, artigiano), dai feet was born the Sudras (the Dalits). " According to Mircea Eliade
on the theory of sacrifice as expressed in the Brahman and the Aranyaka, the sacrifice would repeat the act of creation would be maintained and the relationship between man and the universe to try to keep this order in his unit, will later be also established links between the psycho-physical functions and the stars arriving at the usual identity between Atman and the Sun
The age of the world
The description of the Indian cosmology is found in the Puranas and is divided into different eras.
The first epoch is defined as "mahakalpa" or Life of Brahma and has a duration of three hundred a hundred times sixty days of Brahma or "kalpa". When this period ends Brahma dies and is reborn and start a new creation.
The kalpa is made up of fourteen manvantaras, corresponding to twelve thousand divine years, which correspond to a thousand Mahayuga. In turn, the Mahayuga is divided into four eras: the Krtayuga in which predominates the divine Dharma and lasts four thousand years, followed by three thousand years tretayuga where the dharma is decreased, the dvaparayuga kaliyuga last two thousand years and a duration of one hundred years divine.
The Upanishads
The corpus consists of the Vedas and the Brahmanas as well as by Aranyaka the Upanishads, which are intended to comment on and deepen the Vedic writings. In
Upanishad avviene la condivisione della conoscenza, sruti, che deriva dalla parola sacra.
Il suono del significato della parola ne determina la sacralità e questo è espresso nella formala magica e nel mantra:
“Prajapati covò i mondi. Dai mondi covati nacque il triplice Veda. Egli li covò. Ne uscirono le sillabe bhuh, bhuvah, svah. Egli li covò ne uscì il suono Om. Come le foglie sono tenute insieme dal gambo, così ogni linguaggio è tenuto insieme da Aum. La sillaba Aum in verità è tutto questo.”
(Chandogya,II,23,3)
Il termine “Upanishad” ha il significato di “sedere devotamente vicino” e questa definizione implica la conoscenza segreta trasmessa dal maestro ai suoi discepoli .
Le Upanishad sono considerate da molti critici moderni una interpretazione mistica del sacrificio, nella quale verrebbe diminuita l’influenza della casta sacerdotale dei Brahmana.
Le Upanishad cercano di ridurre l’influenza del sistema delle caste predominante nella società indiana. Infatti a differenza dei Brahmana nelle Upanishad la conoscenza può essere trasmessa a tutti, comprese le donne e non è più custodita solo dai sacerdoti. Sono costituite da centootto colloqui tra maestro e discepolo, secondo la tradizione il numero centootto è un numero sacro tra cui ricordiamo le principali: Brhadarankyaka, Chandogya, Aitareya, Kausitaki, Isa, Kena, Katha, Mundaka, Mandukya, Prsna, Svetasvatara and Taittiriya.
The Upanishads have been passed down orally until the Christian era, then took the form in verse and prose, the language that is used is considered sacred Sanskrit.
The self or soul, Atman
The universe is described in the Vedas as a cosmic order based on the RTA, through the implementation of the sacrifice must be complied with, in Bhamana keeps this principle, but is increased the importance of an analysis of self-awareness. The outward sacrifice
Upanishads became inward sacrifice. Sacrifice comes from the alternation of day and night and complex relationship between the microcosm and macrocosm. According to the Vedic verses creation is identified with human limbs, the sacrifice which the world was born. According to the verses of the hymn to Purusasukta:
"In the beginning this world was only the self (atman), as a person. He said first: "I am". So as I appeared. "
The development of creation comes from the solitude of this I that is divided into male and female. The ego becomes the creation and create the immortal gods.
The world is created according to the desire from the Atman, this is a foretaste of the Buddhist truth. In the Upanishads
they arrived to find that the false projection incompleteness is the basis of desire. In fact we are complete, we should not desire anything. Meditation on the Self leads to the realization that it is all inclusive. The headquarters of the Self is called jiva soul. Self or Atman
This also coincides with the Absolute, the Brahman. The Upanishads are trying to identify the Atman with the following words:
"The self is not this, not that. It is incomprehensible because it can not be understood. It is indestructible because it can not be destroyed. Did not stop because nothing adheres released, because nothing is disturbed or nothing affects it. For half of what you might know the knower? "(Brhad. IV, 5, 15)
" Smaller than small, bigger than the Great Atman resides in the heart of every creature. "But how do you see it? "No one who has not withdrawn its wicked ways, not the one who is not comfortable, but he who does not have a focused mind, even one who has made a mind can achieve it through the right knowledge." (Kathai, 2.20)
Under control of the mind and senses are unable to gain the knowledge. A metaphor that is used in the Katha Upanishad it says: "Self is the lord of the carriage, the carriage body, the intellect is the charioteer e la mente sono le redini”.
“Colui che ha una comprensione del cocchiere della carrozza e controlla le redini della mente, raggiunge la fine del viaggio, la suprema dimora di tutto ciò che pervade”(Ibidem,I,2,30)
Ogni Io trova il suo fondamento nel Sé, che dimora in ogni essere vivente.
Il Sé è chiamato anche Brahman, la causa dell’universo. Molto difficile risulta spiegare il rapporto tra il Brahman e l’Atman e viene definito l’“Incomprensibile”. Nel cuore deve avvenire la ricerca del passaggio dal particolare all’universale. La limitatezza del Sé individuale ci appare dal profondo del cuore e ci viene aperta la strada verso il Brahman, the universal self.
There is no impersonal Brahman and Atman personal, because it is a path leading to the Great Self.
Knowledge
Differences between worldly knowledge and the Atman are explained in the Upanishads.
Worldwide land with its phenomena belongs to empirical knowledge.
The opposition between the mind and the body is non-existent. The Upanishads explain the cosmology that is the result of an emanation. The air, ground substance, emanates from the self, which in turn gives off the air, water and earth.
Life is the Self, which emanates the breath, the breath comes the mind or manas, the latter by the intellect and the rational faculty vijnana call, then takes the return to self.
The process to get to the Self is the involution of the withdrawal.
"The Self, hidden in all beings, does not occur but it can be seen by subtle seers through their sharp and subtle spirit. The wise restrain the word in mind, the latter self-restrain in terms of understanding, comprehension and self-restrain in this great self-restrain in Place. "(Katha, I, 3.12)
The complex theory of knowledge is formulated by Upanishad and includes two main faculties: the breath and the mind (manas). From the mind does not come true knowledge, but we need the involvement of the awareness that vijnana, or knowledge buddhi.
The basis of the asset is given by the mind, while awareness is passive and can show us the way to the Atman.
"Beyond the senses, there are objects of the senses, beyond the objects of the senses is the mind, beyond the mind there is understanding (buddhi), beyond the understanding there is the great Self . '(Katha Up.I, 3.2)
The evolution has created the Self and the densification of the ether to get the formation of the earth. The limit of the process of depletion is reached con la ragione che rappresenta lo specchio del Sé da cui ha avuto inizio il ciclo.
La Purva-Mimansa
Secondo la tradizione brahmanica, la Mimansa si divide in due parti: la Purva-Mimansa e la Uttara-Mimansa. Nella prima, che significa “riflessione prima”, viene spiegata la natura del Dharma come troviamo anche nei Veda, invece nella seconda il cui significato è “riflessione ultima” si indagano le caratteristiche del Brahaman.
Nella Purva-Mimansa si continuano ad analizzare gli aspetti liturgici dei Veda. Nella vita quotidiana assume rilievo fondamentale la presenza del rito tramite le preghiere, le abluzioni e i riti di passaggio nelle fasi dell’esistenza dell’uomo. Il Sutra, which dates back to Jaimin sec.aC IV appears to be the reference text of the Purva-Mimamsa. The Purva-Mimamsa, which celebrates the rite, the authority is enshrined in the Vedas which are not considered revealed texts.
The holy verses are considered to be a projection of that sat through the sound called sabda. Is the mantra that the Vedic verses are considered to be derived from the Absolute.
In the Vedic period was associated with the sound of the mantra OM with different parts of the Universe.
Rendering mantra plays a central role. The Vedic hymns
incite or prohibit through requirements, which are updated through the act.
The sacrifice is not an end in the Vedas. The majority are performed in honor of the sacrifices to the gods, which are embodiments of their names. For example, the gods Indra and Agni are the words "Agni" and "Indra" that are eternal. From this it follows that the word comes before his incarnation.
Usually when an individual makes a sacrifice, hoping that in the future will be rewarded with such a rich harvest, with the birth of a child with a life after death. The act of sacrifice is considered very powerful and its fruits will be collected tomorrow. In addition to the visible act, they are also an invisible when they come will be fulfilled the necessary conditions. The sacrifice is bound to bear fruit future and this link is said Apurva.
The man will be able to use the power of the act and continue to live even after he is dead: here comes the theory of karma.
The theory of knowledge developed by the Purva-Mimamsa gives full validity to the authority of the Vedas. Jaimin theorizes the existence of a direct perception (pratyaksa), inference (Anuman), comparison (upamana), the word (sabda) and presumption (arthapatti).
knowledge is valid in itself, and it follows that all knowledge is correct, its validity comes from the existence of the subject, object and act in direct perception. When
between two situations is a relationship of necessity is used in the inference. In conclusion, the most valuable knowledge is considered to be the word, because based on the Vedas.
Vedanta Vedanta is a philosophical movement, which drew up the thought contained in the Upanishads.
The various schools recognize the authority of a fundamental text on Brahma sutras written by such a Badarayana, where it is confirmed that the Atman, the individual self, is equivalent to Brahman, the universal self. After the death of Badarayana, his successor Gaudapada continues the work of study of the Upanishads, Shankara considered until the arrival of the maximum current member of monism.
absolute monism
Shankara says in the Upanishads we find the concept of identity between Atman and Brahman.
The reasoning would not be able to explain this identity because of its metaphysical character, but is expected to become valid on the authority of the Upanishads. For Shankara
the mystical interpretation of the universe as well as being consonant with the Vedic ritualism it also expresses the message. Among the critics of this interpretation of the Upanishads we remember Mimansika, according to which Brahman contain provisions on the sacrifice. The Upanishads are not considered important, because far from truth of the Vedas.
Shankara argues considering the Brahman texts with a lower level of awareness.
The Absolute would not be met by the sacrifice that just keeps the value of purification. There
Shankara for an "I'm going, I do, I see, I know, but this is pure illusion. This illusion arises because the self is considered similar to the body:
"Although we must admit that the self is one of the bans are possible due to the difference caused by the connection of self with the body and the other limitations are produced by ignorance . It follows that he who has attained perfect knowledge, limitations and prohibitions are without purpose "(ibid., II, 34.8).
The Upanishads say when equality between the Brahman el'Atman not find the solution that explains the possibility that many individuals are part of the usual self. In this respect the doctrine of Samkhya maintains the duality between spirit and matter as well as the existence of many souls. Shankara does not believe that there may be countless souls, the multiplicity of the self is seen as an illusion as the solar rays that reflect their image in the water. You need to find an explanation of the relationship between Atman and Brahman many. The definition given to the Brahman is to be (sat), intelligence (cit) and bliss (Ananda). Worldwide and is based on the phenomenal results it has been described as pure being. " The real and we ourselves are well regarded by Shankara as an illusion, Maya. Being the backbone of any appearance, while the non-being is without its own essence. The illusion contains neither being nor non-being:
"Maya is called undeveloped or non-manifest as it can not be defined either as what is, or how what is not" (Brahma Sutra, I, 4.3)
consciousness is clouded by ignorance (ajnana), but is limited by being Maya, illusion. The ego and the psychic world nascono dal confine della coscienza con l’ignoranza, mentre la nascita del mondo deriva dal confine tra l’essere con il non essere dell’illusione. Maya produce una serie di brahman che sono basati sull’essere che non riesce a manifestarsi a causa degli oggetti mondani. L’Atman appare come se pensasse e se si muovesse anche se resta immobile e rimane in relazione con il mondo psichico. Shankara aveva sostenuto che tutto il mondo sensibile doveva essere condannato perché era un effetto dell’ignoranza e che solo grazie alla conoscenza dell’Atman saremmo giunti alla sua fine. Essere, coscienza e beatitudine sono attributi del Brahaman che sono avvolti dal velo dell’ignoranza, però restano sempre come caratteristiche fundamental of the world. Anyone is free from illusions managed to get to the truth acts in the world as if it really existed until the death of the body.
The Mahabarata
This epic poem tells of the wars of Barata a warrior race who lived in northern India. The civil war being fought between two families descended from a hero of ancient India Barata, the family of Kuru and the Pandava cousins. The latter forced into exile by deception come from Kuru king Duryodhana's request for land on which to rule, but after that he was denied starting the war, which lasted several years and culminates in the battle of Kurukshetra. The battle is won Pandavas by devotees of Krishna, the incarnation of Vishnu, who sided with their parte.Yudhisthira, the lineage of the Pandavas, he left the kingdom to his son Arjuna and began his ascetic life with her brothers. The poem ends with the reunion of the god Vishnu, Krishna and Yudhisthira that comes with the sight of God. In Mahabarata emerges the theme of ethics of right and wrong according to the poem would be three hundred thirty million gods. A structure known as the Trinity of Hinduism Trimurti consists of three main gods are Brahma, Vishnu and Shiva emerges above many of the Hindu pantheon as Indra, Varuna, Kali, Kama, Soma, Surya, Agni, Yama,
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